It was a beautiful Tuesday in Italy, the archaeological site of Ostia Antica to be specific. As usual I had taken the trains to the site in order to study the pottery from the DAI/AAR excavations, arriving by about 9:00. The day was routine…examining the pottery the excavating team had recovered in order to provide them with dating evidence for the stratigraphic sequence. We always had lunch at a certain point in the midst of the ruins where tourists seldom arrived, beneath the umbrella pines. Then back to work in the storerooms… I would meet my 88-year old grandmother and aunt and uncle in the center of Rome in the evening for dinner, so I left the team a little earlier, around 3 p.m. I nearly fell asleep on the train home, walked to my car and started the engine. As I approached the train crossing another train was approaching, so the barrier came down. I waited in my car and was stuck by an Italian guy pacing frantically in the road speaking in an agitated manner on the phone. He seemed like a journalist, but who knows. He kept saying phrases (in Italian) like “I can’t believe this.” “It is war.” “There is a war and now what are we going to do.” I heard him mention New York. Who knows…Italians always exaggerate. I arrived home after ten minutes and started getting ready when the phone rang. It was my sister-in-law. She asked in a frantic manner (her normal tone) “Oh my god, how are your parents (in New York). Are they OK? What is happening? They dropped bombs or something.” Of course I had no clue what she was talking about so I asked her and she told me about the Twin Towers and that I should turn on the TV. I turned on the TV and like billions of other people in the world, thought “Oh my god. What the hell is happening?” It was like a dream…the images repeating over and over, the planes crashing into the Twin Towers and images of the towers collapsing. All I could do was sit on the bed and stare at the TV.
domenica 11 settembre 2011
lunedì 5 settembre 2011
Porolissum - How late is "late"?
At least two of the articles I have published begin with the word reflection.... Archaeologists reflect a lot because while some things are clear, many things are not and we ponder...this actually leads to obsession...
One of the "big" questions at Porolissum concerns the period after the Romans officially left around AD 271. Eighteen sporadic coins dating AD 325-375 have been found at the site over the years although none by the PFP. The latest coins we have found pertain to Severus Alexander (AD 222-235). Other artifacts found over the years have also been designated as "post-Roman". One of the theories is that following the Roman withdrawal from Dacia, the territory was inhabited by the Daco-Romans, namely native Dacians and Romans (perhaps veterans and their families) who presumably remained until the Huns entered Europe in the late 4th century. When we began the excavation, this was among our research questions and because so many archaeologists in Romania discuss the post-Roman phase of Dacia, I have to say that I was biased and began to "see" post-Roman artifacts. The more time I spent digging at Porolissum the more I sought evidence for the post-Roman phase, but the more I looked the less I actually saw.
The PFP has excavated a number of "late" features. In 2009 and 2010 we revealed three hearths and associated post holes, the best preserved of which was in Trench 22N. You would not expect rather crude hearths within Roman public buildings unless the original function of the buildings ceased and "squatters" were using the buildings. In addition to the hearths, we also noted that in some cases the spaces between columns in the porticus surrounding the forum's courtyard had been sealed with crude concrete masonry. With the notion of Daco-Romans in mind, we formulated a hypothesis of settlers making use of the solid architecture of the forum for houses, storage areas, workshops, etc. Afterall, the "Roman" component would have maintained technological knowledge such as the use of concrete.
With some doubts in our mind we planned the 2011, in part, to consider this question. We re-excavated Trench 22N and scrutinized all the archaeological materials we had excavated since 2004. Unfortunately there was no material situated below the "late" hearth in 22N. In reviewing the pottery, coins, etc. we realized that none can be attributed to after the 3rd century AD. There were some fragments that reminded me of 4th and 5th century AD wares from the Mediterranean, but the forms were false friends and in fact bear no relation to the Late Roman wares. Therefore, while we still do not have a firm conclusion, we are more convinced that Porolissum was not significantly inhabited after AD 271. We certainly do not have evidence for a post-Roman settlement. Instead we are considering a hypothesis that the site may have been largely abandoned and/or may have regressed prior to AD 271. Considering the rampant civil wars between rival emperors following the assassination of Severus Alexander, we wonder if troops and civilians may not have begun to move from the region. Economically, the Empire was in poor condition and while there was long distance trade in the Mediterranean, many regions were left the fend for themselves. According to this new hypothesis with a depopulation of Porolissum, say by the 240s/250s AD the last settlers may indeed have resorted to re-using public architecture for survival - hearths in the forum, closing off collanades for defense or housing, etc.
This is no to say that no human being set foot at Porolissum in the period 4th-10th centuries. In fact there is a little evidence. Only time and much study will tell.....
One of the "big" questions at Porolissum concerns the period after the Romans officially left around AD 271. Eighteen sporadic coins dating AD 325-375 have been found at the site over the years although none by the PFP. The latest coins we have found pertain to Severus Alexander (AD 222-235). Other artifacts found over the years have also been designated as "post-Roman". One of the theories is that following the Roman withdrawal from Dacia, the territory was inhabited by the Daco-Romans, namely native Dacians and Romans (perhaps veterans and their families) who presumably remained until the Huns entered Europe in the late 4th century. When we began the excavation, this was among our research questions and because so many archaeologists in Romania discuss the post-Roman phase of Dacia, I have to say that I was biased and began to "see" post-Roman artifacts. The more time I spent digging at Porolissum the more I sought evidence for the post-Roman phase, but the more I looked the less I actually saw.
The PFP has excavated a number of "late" features. In 2009 and 2010 we revealed three hearths and associated post holes, the best preserved of which was in Trench 22N. You would not expect rather crude hearths within Roman public buildings unless the original function of the buildings ceased and "squatters" were using the buildings. In addition to the hearths, we also noted that in some cases the spaces between columns in the porticus surrounding the forum's courtyard had been sealed with crude concrete masonry. With the notion of Daco-Romans in mind, we formulated a hypothesis of settlers making use of the solid architecture of the forum for houses, storage areas, workshops, etc. Afterall, the "Roman" component would have maintained technological knowledge such as the use of concrete.
With some doubts in our mind we planned the 2011, in part, to consider this question. We re-excavated Trench 22N and scrutinized all the archaeological materials we had excavated since 2004. Unfortunately there was no material situated below the "late" hearth in 22N. In reviewing the pottery, coins, etc. we realized that none can be attributed to after the 3rd century AD. There were some fragments that reminded me of 4th and 5th century AD wares from the Mediterranean, but the forms were false friends and in fact bear no relation to the Late Roman wares. Therefore, while we still do not have a firm conclusion, we are more convinced that Porolissum was not significantly inhabited after AD 271. We certainly do not have evidence for a post-Roman settlement. Instead we are considering a hypothesis that the site may have been largely abandoned and/or may have regressed prior to AD 271. Considering the rampant civil wars between rival emperors following the assassination of Severus Alexander, we wonder if troops and civilians may not have begun to move from the region. Economically, the Empire was in poor condition and while there was long distance trade in the Mediterranean, many regions were left the fend for themselves. According to this new hypothesis with a depopulation of Porolissum, say by the 240s/250s AD the last settlers may indeed have resorted to re-using public architecture for survival - hearths in the forum, closing off collanades for defense or housing, etc.
This is no to say that no human being set foot at Porolissum in the period 4th-10th centuries. In fact there is a little evidence. Only time and much study will tell.....
domenica 4 settembre 2011
Sterile Soil......
As the readers of this Blog know, one goal of archaeologists is to reach "Sterile Soil", namely virgin soil unaltered by man. By achieving this, archaeologists may discuss the earliest phase of occupation. In the past the PFP has reached sterile soil, but in most cases we did not reach the bottom of the trench, so to speak. Among the goals of the 2011 was to reach sterile soil, like it or not, and we did.
Trench 22N was the most satisfying. We began excavating this trench in 2010, but halted at a depth of 0.9 m when we unearthed a "late" hearth (see preliminary results of 2011 season at http://www.porolissum.org/). In 2011 we "sectioned" the hearth - literally slicing it in half - in order to verify what lay below. We found a series of very deep Roman fills with an abundance of archaeological materials. At a certain point, ca. 2.5 m in depth the materials ceased, but we encountered a thick and dense layer of charcoal-filled clay - we had reached the earliest level of the site, the timber and earth phase which dates to the time of Trajan (we even found an coin of Trajan). Since the clay was so deep and the surface of the trench so broad, we sectioned part of the trench in order to see the depth of the timber/earth layer. At a depth of ca. 3.0 m we reached virgin soil; thus we obtained the full sequence of activity in the trench.
Trench 11 was also interesting, but the students felt more like miners than archaeologists. Trench 11 holds a complex sequence of architectural features beginning with a timber/earth phase at the lowest level. Sequentially, this is followed by a massive building campaign during the reign of emperor Antoninus Pius, when a public building of unknown function was constructed. This structure was renovated on several occasions and included no fewer than 5-6 superimposed floors. The last significant building phase was in the Severan period. The layers simply continued downward, but we were determined. Finally, during the last days of the project at a depth of more than 4.0 m. we reached a layer of clay with no human-generated debris.
Trench 33, at the highest point of the site, was and is perplexing. The magnetometry results from the 1990s indicated an architectural feature. Being the highest point of the site, we fantasized about a monumental gate or a temple. In the end and after excavating about 20 cm of earth, we encountered traces of walls. After just about 10 more cm we had reached the bottom of the walls (which had been robbed in recent times by local farmers from Moigrad and Jac). There was a large building which measured at least 10 x 10 m., but it was not consistent with a public building. In fact, we speculate that this was either a house or an industrial/commercial complex (a kind of kiln was found in association with the architecture). The oddity was that seemingly sterile soil was encountered at an average of 30 cm below the modern ground level. The Romans had dug into the clay for the foundation of the building, but we did not encounter any cultural material in the clay. Just to verify, some of the students were asked to excavate to a depth of nearly 2.0 m., but they only excavated clay. A nearby trench (4) from PFP 2006 gave similar results. We wonder if this is indeed the natural clay or if it is virgin clay that had been artificially piled into a defensive mound, surrounding the original wooden feature of the Trajanic period. We will have to investigate this in future years.
Trench 22N was the most satisfying. We began excavating this trench in 2010, but halted at a depth of 0.9 m when we unearthed a "late" hearth (see preliminary results of 2011 season at http://www.porolissum.org/). In 2011 we "sectioned" the hearth - literally slicing it in half - in order to verify what lay below. We found a series of very deep Roman fills with an abundance of archaeological materials. At a certain point, ca. 2.5 m in depth the materials ceased, but we encountered a thick and dense layer of charcoal-filled clay - we had reached the earliest level of the site, the timber and earth phase which dates to the time of Trajan (we even found an coin of Trajan). Since the clay was so deep and the surface of the trench so broad, we sectioned part of the trench in order to see the depth of the timber/earth layer. At a depth of ca. 3.0 m we reached virgin soil; thus we obtained the full sequence of activity in the trench.
Trench 11 was also interesting, but the students felt more like miners than archaeologists. Trench 11 holds a complex sequence of architectural features beginning with a timber/earth phase at the lowest level. Sequentially, this is followed by a massive building campaign during the reign of emperor Antoninus Pius, when a public building of unknown function was constructed. This structure was renovated on several occasions and included no fewer than 5-6 superimposed floors. The last significant building phase was in the Severan period. The layers simply continued downward, but we were determined. Finally, during the last days of the project at a depth of more than 4.0 m. we reached a layer of clay with no human-generated debris.
Trench 33, at the highest point of the site, was and is perplexing. The magnetometry results from the 1990s indicated an architectural feature. Being the highest point of the site, we fantasized about a monumental gate or a temple. In the end and after excavating about 20 cm of earth, we encountered traces of walls. After just about 10 more cm we had reached the bottom of the walls (which had been robbed in recent times by local farmers from Moigrad and Jac). There was a large building which measured at least 10 x 10 m., but it was not consistent with a public building. In fact, we speculate that this was either a house or an industrial/commercial complex (a kind of kiln was found in association with the architecture). The oddity was that seemingly sterile soil was encountered at an average of 30 cm below the modern ground level. The Romans had dug into the clay for the foundation of the building, but we did not encounter any cultural material in the clay. Just to verify, some of the students were asked to excavate to a depth of nearly 2.0 m., but they only excavated clay. A nearby trench (4) from PFP 2006 gave similar results. We wonder if this is indeed the natural clay or if it is virgin clay that had been artificially piled into a defensive mound, surrounding the original wooden feature of the Trajanic period. We will have to investigate this in future years.
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